Improvement in Food Resources

India's population keeps growing, so the country needs more food from the same or less land — raising the yield per hectare rather than farming more land. NCERT groups the ways to do this under three heads: crop variety improvement, crop production improvement (nutrient management and cropping patterns), and crop protection management (from weeds, insects and diseases). All three act together — a high-yielding variety only performs well if it also gets the right nutrients, water and protection.

Agricultural practice in India has shifted from purely traditional methods (which depend heavily on the monsoon and give low, unpredictable yields) towards approaches that combine improved seeds, irrigation, fertilisers and pest control. This shift made India largely self-sufficient in staple grains, though yields still vary a great deal between irrigated and rain-fed regions.

A better variety of a crop can raise yield on its own. Breeders select or create new varieties for: higher yield; better quality (e.g. baking quality in wheat, protein in pulses, oil quality in oilseeds); biotic resistance (to diseases, insects, nematodes); abiotic resistance (to drought, salinity, waterlogging, heat, cold and frost); change in maturity duration (a shorter cycle lets more crops be grown per year and cuts cost); wider adaptability (performing well across many environments); and desirable agronomic characteristics such as dwarfism in cereals, which lets the plant use more nutrients for grain instead of growing tall and lodging (falling over) in wind and rain.

New varieties come from three main methods. Hybridisation crosses genetically different plants (intervarietal, interspecific or intergeneric) to combine desirable traits from both parents. Introduction brings in genetic material — a new variety, or an existing variety grown in a new place, sometimes without any breeding at all. Mutation breeding uses chemicals or radiation to induce mutations that occasionally give useful traits, and genetic engineering allows precise transfer of a single useful gene (e.g. for insect resistance) without carrying over unwanted traits, unlike traditional hybridisation.

Agricultural practice depends on the resources a farmer has — from resource-poor farmers relying on organic matter and family labour, to farmers with irrigation, fertilisers, pesticides and machinery. Cropping patterns also vary with climate, soil, water availability and demand; several strategies mix crops to use resources efficiently and reduce the risk of total crop failure.

In mixed cropping, two or more crops are grown simultaneously on the same land with no defined row pattern (e.g. wheat + gram) — this minimises the risk of total failure if one crop fails due to bad weather. In intercropping, two or more crops are grown in a defined pattern of alternating rows in a fixed ratio (e.g. two rows of soybean to one of maize), so each crop gets enough room and nutrients are used efficiently, and pest control can be applied crop-specifically. In crop rotation, different crops are grown on the same field in a planned succession, based on each crop's duration — a short-duration crop like moong may be grown between one main crop's harvest and the next's sowing. Growing a legume before or after a cereal replenishes soil nitrogen naturally and cuts the fertiliser the next crop needs.

Plants need sixteen essential nutrients: air supplies carbon and oxygen; water supplies hydrogen and oxygen; soil supplies the remaining thirteen. Six of these, needed in large quantities, are macronutrients — nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur — while seven, needed in small quantities, are micronutrients — iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and chlorine. A deficiency of any nutrient produces characteristic symptoms and reduces growth and yield, since each plays a specific, non-substitutable role (nitrogen for leafy growth, phosphorus for roots and seeds, potassium for overall health and disease resistance).

Nutrients removed by each crop must be replenished, through manure or fertiliser. Manure is organic matter (farmyard manure, compost, vermicompost, green manure) from decomposed plant or animal waste; it supplies small quantities of nutrients along with organic matter that improves soil structure — raising water-holding capacity in sandy soil, helping drainage in clayey soil, and promoting soil microbes and earthworms. Fertilisers are commercial, nutrient-rich chemical compounds (urea, superphosphate, NPK) that supply a specific nutrient in concentrated form and give a strong, quick yield response, but overuse damages soil fertility (killing soil microbes, altering structure) and pollutes water through run-off, causing eutrophication. Using manure and fertiliser together, with crop rotation involving legumes, is the balanced approach for long-term soil health.

Water is essential at every stage of a crop's life, and its need varies with the crop, soil and season. Sources include wells (dug and tube wells, pumping groundwater), canals (main canals, branch canals and distributaries carrying water from a reservoir or river), rivers (river lift systems where canal flow is insufficient), tanks (small storage reservoirs from a local catchment), and rainwater harvesting/watershed management, which stores or recharges rainwater at the point where it falls rather than letting it run off.

Traditional systems (moving water by hand or animal power, or channels dug from a canal) are cheap but inefficient and labour-intensive. Modern systems reduce water wastage considerably: a sprinkler system sprays water through perpendicular pipes with rotating nozzles, spreading it like rainfall — suited to uneven land with low water availability. A drip irrigation system releases water drop by drop directly at the root through narrow pipes and nozzles, so water is used most efficiently, with almost no wastage through evaporation or run-off.

Indian agriculture depends heavily on the monsoon, so farmers grow different crops in different seasons based on temperature, day length and water availability. Kharif crops are sown at the start of the monsoon (June–July) and harvested at its end (September–October) — paddy, maize, soybean, cotton, groundnut, moong. Rabi crops are sown in winter (October–December) and harvested in summer (April–June) — wheat, gram, peas, mustard, linseed. A short-duration crop like a summer vegetable or moong may also be grown between these two, wherever water is available, giving the land a third, shorter cropping season.

Cropping pattern varies with climate, soil type and the water and inputs a farmer has; matching an appropriate crop to the season and local resources — rather than forcing an unsuitable crop with heavy external inputs — is the most sustainable way to raise cropping intensity (crops grown per year on the same land).

Weeds, insect pests and diseases can destroy a large share of a crop if left unmanaged. Weeds are unwanted plants growing with a cultivated crop that compete for nutrients, light, water and space, lowering yield (e.g. Xanthium, Parthenium). Weeds are controlled by preventive methods (weed-free seeds, crop rotation, thorough field preparation), mechanical removal (uprooting or tilling before seeds form) and chemical control (weedicides such as 2,4-D, at a concentration that does not damage the crop).

Insect pests attack in three ways: cutting the root, stem or leaf; sucking cell sap; and boring into stem or fruit. Diseases are caused by pathogens (bacteria, fungi, viruses) spread through soil, water, air, or seeds. Crops are protected by preventive measures (resistant varieties, timely sowing, crop rotation, summer ploughing to expose soil pests to sun and predators, proper seed storage) and by chemicals — insecticides, fungicides and weedicides. Excess or improper chemical use is itself harmful — it pollutes the environment, kills useful soil organisms, and can accumulate in the food chain up to humans — so integrated pest management (resistant varieties, biological control, judicious chemical use) is now preferred over chemicals alone.

Losses in stored grain happen at almost every stage between harvest and consumption. Biotic factors include insects, rodents, fungi, mites and bacteria; abiotic factors include wrong moisture and temperature in storage. Together these cause loss of germination capability, discolouration, poor nutrient value and a musty smell, plus weight loss and poor germination that can run into a significant percentage of stored produce.

Before storage, grains must be dried in the sun to reduce moisture, which helps avoid infestation by insects, bacteria and fungi. Measures include cleaning produce before storage, fumigation with chemicals that kill pests, and large-scale storage structures (such as those of the Food Corporation of India) built to keep grain safe over long periods.

Animal husbandry is the scientific management of livestock — feeding, breeding, disease control and overall management of animals kept for various purposes, including draught power for farm work in addition to food. Increasing livestock production matters for a growing population, requiring attention to disease control and scientific management.

Dairy farm management needs: cattle of good breed (bred for high milk yield, or disease resistance and adaptability); adequate nutritious feed (a good ratio of roughage — fibrous green and dry fodder — and concentrates, richer in protein); regular veterinary care against infectious diseases (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, usually restricted to a specific organ) and metabolic diseases; and hygienic housing, milking and storage conditions, which also affect milk yield.

Poultry farm management covers breeding, care and disease control of domestic fowl for egg and meat production. Improved cross-breeds combine Indian breeds (e.g. Aseel) with foreign breeds (e.g. Leghorn) for better chick number and quality, dwarf broiler parents, and smaller layers, aimed at low-cost, better-quality poultry products. It requires appropriate temperature, hygienic housing, and a nutritionally balanced, hygienically maintained diet.

Breeding aims to improve animal characteristics to increase yield and quality. Cattle are bred for milk production (milch/dairy animals) or draught capacity (agricultural work, e.g. bullocks). Exotic breeds (Jersey, Brown Swiss) are selected for long lactation; local breeds (Red Sindhi, Sahiwal) for disease resistance; the two are cross-bred to combine both.

Three broad ways raise the population of animals with a desired trait. In natural mating, superior males and females mate within the same breed (inbreeding, for 4–6 generations, increasing trait purity but exposing harmful recessive genes) or between breeds (outbreeding — out-crossing between unrelated individuals of the same breed with no common ancestor for 4–6 generations, cross-breeding between different breeds, or interspecific hybridisation between species, e.g. a mule from a horse and a donkey). In controlled breeding, artificial insemination introduces semen from a superior male into the female's reproductive tract, avoiding the need for a male on every farm. MOET (multiple ovulation embryo transfer) gives a cow hormones to induce superovulation (6–8 eggs instead of one), fertilised by a superior bull's sperm; the resulting 8-cell embryos are transferred to surrogate mothers, who carry the pregnancy to term.

Poultry birds are kept for two products: eggs and meat. A hen kept for eggs is a layer; a chick raised for meat is a broiler. Their feed differs — broiler feed is richer in protein and fat with emphasis on vitamins A and K, since broilers are raised for rapid weight gain over a short period, while layers need more calcium and phosphorus for egg-shell formation and to sustain regular laying.

Poultry farming needs careful management of temperature, hygiene, disease prevention (vaccination against Ranikhet, fowl pox) and sanitary housing, since crowded conditions spread infection fast. Cross-breeding Indian breeds (disease-resistant) with foreign breeds (more productive) gives birds needing less feed for more eggs or meat, tolerant of Indian climate and relatively disease-resistant compared with a purely foreign breed.

Fish is an important protein source, obtained by capture fishing (from the sea, or inland from rivers and lakes) or by fish farming/aquaculture in a controlled environment. Marine fisheries exploit the sea, near-shore or deep, using techniques like satellite data to locate fish shoals; important varieties include pomfret, mackerel, tuna, sardines and bombay duck. Prawns, mussels and oysters are also cultured, along with pearl culture. Inland fisheries use fresh water (canals, ponds, reservoirs) and brackish water resources; since natural inland production alone can't meet demand, most inland fish production now comes from aquaculture.

In composite fish culture, five or six fish species (chosen so they don't compete for food) are grown together in the same pond, each occupying a different zone: catlas are surface feeders, rohus feed in the middle zone, mrigals and common carps are bottom feeders, and grass carps feed on pond weeds. This raises total yield well beyond what a single species could give. Since most fish don't breed naturally in ponds, induced breeding using hormonal stimulation (pituitary extracts and other hormone preparations) now provides pure fish seed of the desired species reliably.

Bee-keeping, or apiculture, is done for honey and wax, and also provides pollination of nearby crops — often more economically valuable than the honey itself. In India, the Indian bee (Apis cerana indica), rock bee (Apis dorsata) and little bee (Apis florea) are traditional choices, alongside the introduced Italian bee (Apis mellifera), valued for higher honey yield, gentler behaviour and less frequent stinging.

Good honey production also depends on pasturage — the flowers available for bees to forage — since the quantity and quality of honey depends on the flowers available near the beehives.